What is Sunni Doctrine on Rebelling Against Rulers?

The Islamic doctrine on rebellion can be traced back to the first year after the hijrah when the terms of the Constitution of Madina were drafted:

(al-Sirah al-Nabawiyah / Ibn Hisham)

وَإِنَّ الْمُؤْمِنِينَ الْمُتَّقِينَ عَلَى مَنْ بَغَى مِنْهُمْ، أَوْ ابْتَغَى دَسِيعَةَ ظُلْمٍ، أَوْ إثْمٍ، أَوْ عُدْوَانٍ، أَوْ فَسَادٍ بَيْنَ الْمُؤْمِنِينَ، وَإِنَّ أَيْدِيَهُمْ عَلَيْهِ جَمِيعًا

The God-fearing believers [stand] against whoever amongst them rebels, or desires worst of oppression, sin, enmity or wreaking havoc amongst the believers. Their hands are united against him.

According to the general view, a consensus (ijma') was reached amongst scholars that it is wrong for Muslims to rebel against a Muslim ruler, no matter how oppressive and tyrannical, as the following early 4th/10th century quotation indicates.

(Risalah ila ahl al-thaghr bi-bab al-abwab / Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari, d. 324/935)

الإجماع الخامس والأربعون: وأجمعوا على السمع والطاعة لأئمة المسلمين وعلى أن كل من ولي شيئاً من أمورهم عن رضى أو غلبة وامتدت طاعته من بر وفاجر لا يلزم الخروج عليهم بالسيف جار أو عدل، وعلى أن يغزوا معهم العدو، ويحج معهم البيت، وتدفع إليهم الصدقات إذا طلبوها ويصلى خلفهم الجمع والأعياد.

The forty-fifth point of consensus: They reached consensus over listening to and obeying the rulers of the Muslims and whoever is in charge of their affairs, be it by consent or imposition; and that obedience extends to both the righteous and the wrongdoer. One must not rebel against them with the sword, be they tyrannical or just. [They further agreed] on waging war with them against the enemy; performing pilgrimage with them; paying alms dues to them, if they request it; and praying behind them on Fridays and Eids.

However, it is important to note from the outset that the fact that orthodox teaching on this is based on consensus means that, in the views of those scholars, there is no clear-cut Quranic verse or prophetic hadith which forbids rebellion. This is a deduction since if there were unambiguous evidence against rebellion in either of the first two fundamental bases of jurisprudence (usul al-fiqh), then logically there would be no need to resort to the third basis of consensus, as it would be sufficient merely to quote the relevant text from the Quran or Sunnah. Effectively, the consensus against rebellion is based on a judgement call made by individual scholars, each of whom weighed the implications of the relevant scriptural texts against their plentiful practical experience of both tyranny and rebellion, before eventually reaching broadly similar conclusions. It is vitally important to recognise this point because without it we run the grave risk of condemning some of the Companions of the Prophet (P) for sins of which they were not guilty.

What follows in this section is a listing of brief excerpts from the doctrinal works of scholars in chronological order, representing all four surviving Sunni schools of law (madhhab). The earliest statements are that attributed to Abu Hanifah and that of Ibn Hanbal. In addition to being the founders of two of these schools, both of them suffered arrest, imprisonment and persecution at the hands of the khalifas of their day. As one would expect where there is a consensus, the reader will notice considerable repetition in both the opinions and any scriptural evidence. Later sections in this module explore in greater detail the main Quran and Hadith texts quoted in the light of commentaries.

(al-Sharh al-muyassar 'ala al-fiqhayn al-absat / attributed to Abu Hanifah)

قال أبو حنيفة فقاتل اهل البغي بالبغي لا بالكفر وكن مع الفئة العادلة والسلطان الجائر ولا تكن مع اهل البغي فإن كان في اهل الجماعة فاسدون ظالمون فإن فيهم أيضا صالحين يعينونك عليهم وإن كانت الجماعة باغية فاعتزلهم واخرج الى غيرهم قال تعالى {ألم تكن أرض الله واسعة فتهاجروا فيها} وقال أيضا {إن أرضي واسعة فإياي فاعبدون}

Abu Hanifah said: “Fight those who transgress on the basis of [their] transgression, not of disbelief; and be on the side of just party and the oppressive sultan, not of those who transgress. Even if the main body of believers contains corrupt wrongdoers, there will also be amongst them righteous people who will support you against them. And if the main body of believers transgresses, then withdraw from them and leave them for others. God (T) said: {Is not God's earth broad, so roam therein} and He said: {My earth is broad, so worship Me.}

(Usul al-Sunnah / Ahmad ibn Hanbal)

وَمَنْ خَرَجَ عَلَى إِمَامِ المُسْلِمِينَ وَقَدْ كَانَ النَّاسُ اجْتَمَعُوا عَلَيْهِ وَأَقَرُّوا لَهُ بِالخِلافَةِ بِأَيِّ وَجْهٍ كَانَ بِالرِّضَا أَوْ بِالْغَلَبَةِ فَقَدْ شَقَّ هَذَا الخَارِجُ عَصَا المُسْلِمِينَ، وَخَالَفَ الآثَارَ عَنْ رَسُولِ اللهِ صلعم  فَإِنْ مَاتَ الخَارِجُ عَلَيْهِ مَاتَ مِيتَةَ جَاهِلِيَّةٍ. وَلا يَحِلُّ قِتَالُ السُّلْطَانِ وَلا الخُرُوجُ عَلَيْهِ لأحَدٍ مِنَ النَّاسِ، فَمَنْ فَعَلَ ذَلِكَ فَهُوَ مُبْتَدِعٌ عَلَى غَيْرِ السُّنَّةِ وَالطَّرِيقِ.

Whoever rebels against the leader of the Muslims, on whom people have agreed and have settled the caliphate by whatever means, be it out of contentment or by force, that rebel has split the sceptre of the Muslims, and he has contravened the tradition from God's Messenger (P); and if that rebel dies in that state, he dies the death of the Days of Ignorance. For no one is it lawful to fight the sultan or to rebel against him; whoever does it is an innovator on a path other than the Sunnah.

The following was composed by a 3rd/9th century Shafiite scholar:

(Sharh al-Sunnah / Isma'il ibn Yahya al-Muzani, d. 264/878)

طَاعَة الأَئِمَّة والأمراء وَمنع الْخُرُوج عَلَيْهِم

14 وَالطَّاعَة لأولي الأَمر فِيمَا كَانَ عِنْد الله عز وَجل مرضيا وَاجْتنَاب مَا كَانَ عِنْد الله مسخطا. وَترك الْخُرُوج عِنْد تعديهم وجورهم وَالتَّوْبَة إِلَى الله عز وَجل كَيْمَا يعْطف بهم على رعيتهم

Obeying rulers & princes, & preventing rebelling against them
Obedience belongs to those in authority in whatever is pleasing to God (T) and avoids what is displeasing to God, likewise abstaining from rebellion when they transgress and oppress; and repenting to God (T), so that He might make them kindly disposed towards their people.

The following is from the well known early 4th/10th summary of Hanafi doctrine:

(al-'Aqidah al-Tahawiyah / Abu Ja'far al-Tahawi, d. 321/933)

ولا نرى الخروج على أئمتنا وولاة أمورنا، وإن جاروا، ولا ندعو عليهم ولا ننزع يدا من طاعتهم، ونرى طاعتهم من طاعة الله – عز وجل – فريضةً ما لم يأمروا بمعصية، وندعو لهم بالصلاح والمعافاة 

We do not agree with rebellion against our rulers or those in charge of our affairs, even if they are oppressive, nor do we invoke [God's wrath] upon them or withdraw from allegiance to them; rather we hold that, like obedience to God – may He be extolled and magnified – obedience to them is obligatory so long as they do not order [us] to sin: and we pray that they be granted righteousness and pardon.

The following statement is by the founder of an influential school of Sunni doctrine:

(al-Ibanah 'an usul al-diyanah / Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari, d. 324/935)

ونرى الدعاء لأئمة المسلمين بالصلاح والإقرار بإمامتهم، وتضليل من رأى الخروج عليهم إذا ظهر منهم ترك الاستقامة.

وندين بإنكار الخروج بالسيف، وترك القتال في الفتنة

We affirm that offering supplication for their well being and stability of their leadership is owed to Muslim rulers; and that they are in error who uphold rebellion against them when [their] departure from uprightness becomes evident.
We profess denial of armed rebellion, and refraining from fighting at times of fitnah.

(I'tiqad A'immat al-Hadith / Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Isma'ili, d. 371/981)
ويرون جهاد الكفار معهم، وإن كانوا جورة، ويرون الدعاء لهم بالصلاح والعطف إلى العدل، ولا يرون الخروج بالسيف عليهم، ولا قتال الفتنة، ويرون قتال الفئة الباغية مع الإمام العادل
The [people of the Hadith] also affirm waging jihad against the disbelievers with them [i.e. Muslim rulers], even if they are tyrants. They affirm supplication for their well-being and inclination towards justice. They do not affirm rebelling with the sword against them, nor fighting against fitnah; but they affirm fighting against the transgressing group behind a just leader.

(Tabyin kadhib al-muftari / Ibn 'Asakir, d. 571/1176)

ونرى الدُّعَاء لأئمة الْمُسلمين بالصلاح وَالإقْرَار بإمامتهم وتضليل من رأى الْخُرُوج عَلَيْهِم إِذَا ظهر مِنْهُم ترك الإستقامة وندين الْخُرُوج عَلَيْهِم بِالسَّيْفِ وَترك الْقِتَال فِي الْفِتْنَة.

We deem [correct] supplications for well being and establishment of the leaders of the Muslims in their leadership, and in error whoever considers rebellion against them, when departure from uprightness is manifest in them. We condemn rebelling against them with the sword and abandoning fighting at times of fitnah.

(Usul al-din / Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Ghaznawi, d. 593/1197)

فصل [164]: وَلا يحل الْخُرُوج عَلَيْهِم وَإِن جاروا وَلا ينعزلون عَن الإمَامَة وَالْولايَة وَإِن ظلمُوا أَو ارتكبوا كَبِيرَة وَلا ندعوا عَلَيْهِم إِذا ظلمُوا بل ندعوا لَهُم بالصلاح وَالْعدْل.

Section 164: Nor is rebelling against them [i.e. Muslim rulers] lawful, even if they are tyrannical. Nor should they be removed from leadership or governorship, even if they do wrong or commit a major sin. We do not call down [God's wrath] on them if they do wrong, rather we pray for their well being and justice.

(al-'Arsh / Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Dhahabi, d. 748/1348)

والأشعرية الأغلب عليهم أنهم مرجئة في باب الأسماء والأحكام وجبرية في باب القدر، وأما الصفات فليسوا جهمية محضة بل فيهم نوع من التجهم، ولا يرون الخروج على الأئمة بالسيف موافقة لأهل الحديث.

In general the Ash'arites are [like] Murji'ites concerning the [divine] names and the rulings, and the Jabrites concerning fate. Regarding the [divine] attributes, they are not pure Jahmites, though they veer towards it. Along with Ahl al-Hadith, they do not agree with rebelling against leaders with the sword.

The following argument for avoiding rebellion, even against tyrannical rulers, is from a commentary on al-Tahawi's above-cited treatise on Hanafi doctrine:

(Sharh al-'Aqidah al-Tahawiyah / Ibn Abi al-'Izz, d. 792/1390)

وأما لزوم طاعتهم وإن جاروا، فلأنه يترتب على الخروج من طاعتهم من المفاسد أضعاف ما يحصل من جورهم

As for the imperative of obeying them despite their tyranny, this is because turning away from obedience to them entails evils which exceed by far what arises from their tyranny.

The following excerpt is drawn from the writings of the founder of the Wahhabi sect:

(Usul al-Iman / Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, d. 1206/1792)

وأرى وجوب السمع والطاعة لأئمة المسلمين، برهم وفاجرهم، ما لم يأمروا بمعصية الله. ومن ولي الخلافة واجتمع عليه الناس، ورضوا به، وغلبهم بسيفه حتى صار خليفة، وجبت طاعته، وحرم الخروج عليه.

I consider hearing and obedience a requirement towards the rulers of the Muslims, be they righteous or wrongdoing, so long as they do not command disobeying God. To whomever is appointed to the caliphate, and the people agree on, and are content with, him, or who overpowers them by his sword until be becomes caliph, obedience is due; and rebelling against him is forbidden.

The following excerpt is from the treatise of a Maliki scholar from the al-Ahsa' region of the Arabian Peninsula, and author of a contemporary history of the expansionist raids to which it was subjected by partisans around the time of the first emergence of Al Saud from the Nejd backed by the ideology of the above-cited founder of Wahhabism:

(al-'Iqd al-thamin fi sharh ahadith Usul al-din / Ibn Ghannam, d. 1255/1810)

والنصيحة لأئمة المسلمين: حب صلاحهم ورشدهم وعدلهم، وحب اجتماع الأمة عليهم، وكراهة افتراق الملة عليهم, والتدين بطاعتهم في طاعة الله تعالى، والبغض لمن رأى الخروج عليهم، وحب إعزازهم في طاعة الله.

Sincerity towards the leaders of the Muslims [entails]: love of their welfare, right guidance and justice; loving that the Ummah should be gathered around them and hating that the religion be divided over them; professing that obedience to them in what [constitutes] obedience to God (T); detesting whoever considers rebelling against them; and loving that they should be strengthened in obedience to God.

The following brief passage, which begins with a reference to 'sincerity', is drawn from a popular 14th/20th century Wahhabi work, comprising two hundred questions and answers on Islamic doctrine:

(A'lam al-Sunnah al-manshurah li-i'tiqad al-ta'ifah al-mansurah / Hafiz ibn Ahmad ibn Ali al-Hakami)

س: ما الواجب لولاة الأمور؟

جـ: الواجب لهم النصيحة بموالاتهم على الحق وطاعتهم فيه، وأمرهم به وتذكيرهم برفق، والصلاة خلفهم والجهاد معهم، وأداء الصدقات إليهم، والصبر عليهم وإن جاروا، وترك الخروج بالسيف عليهم، ما لم يظهروا كفرا بواحا، وأن لا يغروا بالثناء الكاذب عليهم، وأن يدعى لهم بالصلاح والتوفيق.

Q. What is required towards governors of [our] affairs?
A. What is required towards them is sincerity in their governorship based on truth and obedience to them therein, enjoining it on them and reminding them in a kind manner; praying behind them, waging jihad with them, and depositing alms with them; exercising patience towards them, even if they are oppressive; leaving off rebelling against them with the sword so long as they do not display outright disbelief; not to seduce them with deceitful sycophancy; and to beseech [God] for their welfare and success.

All the statements of the above scholars support the consensus that armed rebellion against a Muslim ruler is unlawful, even if he be a tyrant. Despite this, and in apparent contradiction, it remains orthodox doctrine to declare that the Muslim who gains power by such means must be recognised as the lawful ruler de facto. Likewise, while it may seem odd today to mix metaphysics with politics, equating of obedience to rulers with orthodoxy and rebellion with heresy, it must be remembered that the world view that treats religion and state as separate is a relatively modern secular idea.